The relationship between religion and violence is the subject of intense global debate. While political, social, economic, and cultural factors have played significant roles in the rise of violence and terrorism in contemporary Islamic fundamentalism, the religious dimension of this violence cannot be ignored, as it is linked to the core sources and origins of Islam.
Muslims who engage in violence and terrorist activities in the name of Allah find ample justification for their actions from the teachings of the Quran and the sayings and examples of Muhammad. Muslims who work to destroy their perceived enemies rightfully claim that they are following and imitating Allah’s commands in the Quran and Muhammad’s directives.
The following verses from the Quran have been used throughout Islamic history to support violence in the name of Allah and the glorification of martyrdom in jihad.
Quran 2:190-193: “Fight in the way of Allah those who fight you… and kill them wherever you find them… and fight until there is no more persecution and oppression, and faith in Allah and justice are established…”
Quran 2:216: “Fighting is prescribed for you, and you dislike it. But it is possible that you dislike a thing which is good for you, and that you love a thing which is bad for you. But Allah knows, and you know not.”
Quran 2:224: “Then fight in the way of Allah, and know that Allah hears and knows all things.” Quran 3:157-158: “And if you are killed or die in the way of Allah, forgiveness and mercy from Allah are far better than all they could amass. And whether you die or are killed, verily, unto Allah you shall be gathered.”
Quran 3:169: “Think not of those who are killed in the way of Allah as dead. Nay, they are alive, with their Lord, and they have provision.”
Quran 3:195: “…those who… fought or were killed—verily, I will blot out from them their iniquities, and admit them into Gardens with rivers flowing beneath; a reward from Allah…”
Quran 4:101: “…for the unbelievers are unto you open enemies.”
Quran 4:74-75: “Let those fight in the way of Allah who sell the life of this world for the Hereafter. To him who fights in the cause of Allah—whether he is slain or gets victory—soon shall We give him a great reward. Those who believe fight in the way of Allah, and those who disbelieve fight in the way of Satan. So fight against the friends of Satan; feeble indeed is the cunning of Satan.”
Quran 4:89: “They wish that you reject faith as they have, and thus be on the same footing. But take not friends from their ranks until they flee in the way of Allah. But if they turn renegades, seize them and slay them wherever you find them…”
Quran 4:95: “Not equal are those believers who sit at home and receive no hurt, and those who strive and fight in the cause of Allah with their wealth and their lives. Allah has granted a grade higher to those who strive and fight with their wealth and lives than to those who sit at home.”
Quran 5:36: “The punishment of those who wage war against Allah and His Messenger, and strive with might and main for mischief through the land is: execution, or crucifixion, or the cutting off of hands and feet from opposite sides, or exile from the land. That is their disgrace in this world, and a heavy punishment is theirs in the Hereafter.”
Quran 5:54: “O you who believe! Take not the Jews and the Christians for your friends and protectors. They are but friends and protectors to each other. And he amongst you that turns to them is of them. Verily, Allah guides not a people unjust.”
Quran 8:12-17: “Remember your Lord inspired the angels (with the message): ‘I am with you: give firmness to the believers: I will instill terror into the hearts of the unbelievers: smite ye above their necks and smite all their fingertips off them. This because they contended against Allah and His Messenger. If any contend against Allah and His Messenger, Allah is strict in punishment… O you who believe! When you meet the unbelievers in battle, never turn your backs to them. If any do turn his back to them on such a day—unless it be in a stratagem of war… he draws on himself the wrath of Allah, and his abode is Hell, an evil refuge (indeed).’”
Quran 8:59-60: “Let not the unbelievers think that they can get the better (of the godly). They will never frustrate (them). Against them make ready your strength to the utmost of your power, including steeds of war, to strike terror into (the hearts of) the enemies of Allah and your enemies, and others besides, whom you may not know, but whom Allah knows…”
Quran 8:65: “O Prophet! Rouse the believers to the fight. If there are twenty amongst you, patient and persevering, they will vanquish two hundred. If a hundred, they will vanquish a thousand of the unbelievers: for these are a people without understanding.”
Quran 9:5: “…fight and slay the pagans wherever you find them, and seize them, beleaguer them, and lie in wait for them in every stratagem (of war)…”
Quran 9:14: “Fight them, and Allah will punish them by your hands, cover them with shame…”
Quran 9:29: “Fight those who believe not in Allah nor the Last Day, nor hold that forbidden which has been forbidden by Allah and His Messenger, nor acknowledge the religion of truth, (even if they are) of the People of the Book, until they pay the Jizya [religious tax] with willing submission, and feel themselves subdued.”
Quran 47:4: “Therefore, when you meet the unbelievers (in fight), smite at their necks; at length, when you have thoroughly subdued them, bind a bond firmly (on them)… But if it had been Allah’s Will, He could certainly have exacted retribution from them (Himself); but (He lets you fight) in order to test you, some with others. But those who are slain in the way of Allah—He will never let their deeds be lost.”
Quran 61:4: “Truly Allah loves those who fight in His cause in battle array, as if they were a solid cemented structure.”
From the reading of these Quranic passages, it is clear that for many Muslims, it is easy to feel hatred and enmity towards Jews, Christians, and other non-Muslims. Although many Muslims prefer to quote open-minded and inclusive verses from the Quran, the weight and impact of the above passages cannot be ignored in a devout Muslim’s potential to become fundamentalist, who seeks to obey Allah’s commands in the Quran.
Before moving to Muhammad’s examples, it is necessary to respond to two issues that some Muslims raise at this stage.
Many claim that the Quranic verses supporting war are for a specific historical context in the early days of Islam. They argue that Muhammad was persecuted for the first thirteen years of his preaching in Mecca, so his military actions in the last ten years of his life in Medina were justified in defense of the Islamic movement. The problem with this argument is that the Quran itself does not limit the above war commands to any specific time period or group of people.
The second objection often heard is that Islam is a religion of peace and that war in Islam is only for self-defense. Many orthodox Muslims believe that if a country’s leaders do not accept Islamic rule, then those leaders are oppressors and legitimate targets for war (John Kelsay, Islam and War, Louisville: Westminster/John Knox Press, 1993, p. 35). Many Muslims argue that America is a cultural aggressor by exporting its Hollywood values worldwide, so any war against Americans is done in self-defense (Mark Galli, Now What? A Christian Response to Religious Terrorism, Christianity Today, October 22, 2001). Thus, there is no end to how Muslim groups define self-defense and oppression and find Islamic justification for violence.
Now, let us examine some of Muhammad’s actions and sayings to see if Muslims find any legitimacy for the use of violence seen in the contemporary world. We will use only the most ancient, authentic, and foundational Islamic writings to support our thesis. Muhammad’s first biography was written in the second century of the Islamic era by Ibn Ishaq and later edited in the third century by Ibn Hisham. This work has been translated into English as The Life of Muhammad by A. Guillaume and published by Oxford University Press in 1955. The following accounts are some sayings and actions of Muhammad and his close companions found in this biography.
In the Constitution of Medina, which Muhammad wrote in 622 when he migrated from Mecca to Medina with his followers, it states that a Muslim who kills a non-Muslim cannot be executed, but if a non-Muslim kills a Muslim, the non-Muslim will be executed (p. 232).
The first in a series of assassinations ordered by Muhammad was an elderly Jewish man named Ibnul Ashraf. His crime was writing poetry against the Muslims. Muhammad said, “Who will rid me of Ibnul Ashraf?” One of his followers volunteered, “O Messenger of Allah, I will deal with him.” And the Messenger said, “Do so if you can.” The Messenger explicitly permitted his assassins to lie and use deception to accomplish their mission.
The followers tricked the old man out of his house in the middle of the night and brutally murdered him with swords and daggers. Upon completing their mission, the followers informed Muhammad that they had killed Allah’s enemy. They said that their attack on Allah’s enemy had spread terror among the Jews, and there was no Jew in Medina who did not fear for his life (pp. 367-368).
In a subsequent incident in this biography, we see that Muhammad said, “Kill any non-Muslim who falls into your power.” The book recounts an incident involving two brothers, where the younger brother was a Muslim. Upon hearing this command, the younger brother killed a Jewish merchant. The older brother criticized his younger brother’s action. In response, the younger brother said, “If the one who ordered me to kill him had ordered me to kill you, I would have cut off your head.” The older brother exclaimed, “By Allah, a religion that can bring you to this is extraordinary!” And he became a Muslim (p. 369).
Muhammad massacred all the adult males of the Jewish tribe Banu Qurayza and took all their property, women, and children into his possession. The Muslims beheaded approximately 900 men and boys in one day (p. 464). In another incident, Muhammad and his companions were searching for hidden treasures of a conquered tribe. A man was brought to Muhammad who was believed to know the location of the hidden treasures. Muhammad threatened to kill him if he did not reveal the location. When he refused to cooperate, Muhammad ordered Al-Zubayr bin Al-Awwam, “Torture him until you extract what he has,” so he kindled a fire with flint and steel on his chest until he was nearly dead. Then Muhammad delivered him to Muhammad bin Maslama, who cut off his head (p. 515).
After the conquest of Mecca, several people were killed on Muhammad’s orders. Most of their crimes were composing satirical songs against Muhammad or insulting him during his preaching in Mecca (p. 551). One who was fortunate enough to receive pardon was Abdullah bin Saad. Muhammad had ordered his killing because he was a Muslim and used to write revelations; then he apostatized and returned to the Quraysh. Since Abdullah was the foster brother of one of Muhammad’s close companions, he got a hearing before the Messenger and begged for mercy. Muhammad reluctantly granted pardon. After the pardoned man left, Muhammad said to his companions, “I kept silent so that one of you might get up and strike off his head!” One of the Ansar said, “Then why didn’t you give me a sign, O Messenger of Allah?” He replied that a prophet does not kill by pointing (p. 550).
Muhammad ordered the assassination of his uncle Abu Sufyan, the pagan leader of Mecca. Muslims went to Mecca to carry out this mission. The assassination attempt failed. On the way back to Medina, one of Muhammad’s followers met a one-eyed shepherd and confidently claimed that the shepherd would never accept Islam. The follower narrated, “When the man fell asleep and began to snore, I got up and killed him in the most horrible way that anybody has ever been killed. I put the end of my bow in his sound eye, then bore down on it until I forced it out at the back of his neck… When I reached Medina… the Messenger asked me for news and when I told him what had happened, he blessed me” (pp. 674-675).
Following this account of Muhammad’s ordered killings, the biography reports two more successful assassinations. Abu Afak composed poetry showing disrespect to Muhammad. Muhammad said, “Who will deal with this rascal for me?” Whereupon Salim bin Umayr… went forth and killed him (p. 675). After this killing, a woman named Asma bint Marwan showed disrespect and composed poetry against Muhammad. When Muhammad heard, he said, “Who will rid me of Marwan’s daughter?” Umayr… who was with him heard, and that very night he went to her house and killed her. In the morning, he came to the Messenger and told him what he had done, and he [Muhammad] said, “You have helped Allah and His Messenger, O Umayr” (pp. 675-676).
In my opinion, the above samples and Muhammad’s directives provide sufficient justification for killing and destroying any person. Now, let us look at a few examples from the hadiths. In Sunni Islam, the most authentic book is Bukhari’s collection of hadiths, which is second only to the Quran (Sahih Al-Bukhari, 9 volumes, translated by Dr. Muhammad Muhsin Khan, Al Nabawiya: Dar Ahya Us-Sunnah, undated).
Hadith Sahih Bukhari Volume 4, Hadith 55: Muhammad said, “Know that Paradise is under the shade of swords.”
Hadith Sahih Bukhari Volume 4, Hadith 124: Muhammad said, “I have been ordered to fight the people until they say, ‘None has the right to be worshipped but Allah,’ and whoever says, ‘None has the right to be worshipped but Allah,’ his life and property will be saved by me…”
Hadith Sahih Bukhari Volume 4, Hadith 161: It is not fitting for a prophet that he should have prisoners of war (and free them with ransom) until he has made a great slaughter (among his enemies) in the land…
Hadith Sahih Bukhari Volume 9, Hadith 45: Whoever changes his Islamic religion, kill him.
Hadith Sahih Bukhari Volume 4, Hadith 181-182: A non-believer spy came to Muhammad while on a journey. The spy sat with Muhammad’s companions and then went away. Muhammad (to his companions) said, “Chase him and kill him.” So, I killed him. Muhammad then gave him the belongings of the killed spy.
Hadith Sahih Bukhari Volume 4, Hadith 158-159: Muhammad passed by me at Al-Abwa or Waddan, and was asked whether it was permissible to attack pagan warriors at night with the probability of exposing their women and children to danger. The Messenger replied, “They (i.e., women and children) are from them (i.e., pagans),” meaning that women and children could be killed.
We conclude this discussion with two more hadiths from Sunan Abu Dawud. Abu Hurayrah narrated that Muhammad said: “A disbeliever and the one who kills him will never be gathered together in Hell,” meaning that the person who kills a disbeliever in the way of Allah (i.e., jihad) will have his sins forgiven and will go to Paradise. The disbeliever, of course, will go to Hell. So, the one who has killed a disbeliever will not be gathered with him in Hell (Volume 2, p. 690, Sunan Abu Dawud, translated by Ahmad Hasan, 3 volumes, New Delhi: Kitab Bhavan, 1990).
Here is the story of a Muslim man who killed his concubine and Umm Walad, by whom he had two children. Since she insulted the Prophet, the owner took a dagger and thrust it into her belly, killing her. Upon hearing the reason for this murder, the Prophet said, “Oh, be witness, no retaliation is payable for her blood” (Volume 3, pp. 1214-1215).
The next incident in the chapter is narrated by Ali. A Jewish woman used to insult and belittle the Prophet. A Muslim man strangled her to death. Muhammad declared that no compensation was payable for her blood (p. 1215).
Violence in Islam—whether in the form of terrorism, persecution of minorities in the Muslim world, death penalty for those who leave Islam, or death threats against Salman Rushdie for insulting Muhammad—is not just isolated incidents or a perversion of true and peaceful Islam. Such violence actually goes to the roots of Islam, found in the Quran and the actions and teachings of Islam’s prophet. Osama bin Laden quoted some of the Quranic and hadith passages we have documented here to provide religious justification for his actions (New York Times, Friday, December 14, 2001, B4, transcript of his videotape).
Globally, according to the 2025 Global Terrorism Index, the four deadliest terrorist groups increased their violence in 2024, leading to an 11 percent rise in deaths (Vision of Humanity, Global Terrorism Index 2025). In 2023, 90 percent of terrorist attacks and 98 percent of deaths occurred in conflict zones, indicating a strong link between conflict and terrorism (Vision of Humanity, Global Terrorism Index). The Islamic State (IS, ISIS, ISIL, or Daesh) is a transnational Sunni Islamist insurgent and terrorist group that was at its height in 2015 and remains active (Congress.gov, The Islamic State and Its Affiliates, September 2025). In the West, lone wolf attacks are now the primary threat, such as the ISIS-inspired terrorist attack in New Orleans that killed 14 and injured dozens (FPRI, Trends in Terrorism: What’s on the Horizon in 2025, January 2025).
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